Tugas Fkip Seminar of Research Proposal (Research Design Proposal)

Tugas Fkip Seminar of Research Proposal (Research Design Proposal)

.  A. Pre-experimental design

B.  -Following are two designs that are classified as Pre-Experimental because they provide little or no control of extraneous variables. We do not recommend these designs; however, we realize they are still sometimes used in educational research. We include these weak designs in our discussion simply because they illustrate quite well the way that extraneous variables may operate to jeopardize the internal validity of a design. If you become aware of these sources of weakness in a design, you should be able to avoid them. (Donald Ary, Luck Cheser Jacobs, Chris Sorensen, 2010 : 303 )

-Of the various quantitative research methods, experiments provide the most rigorous test of causal hypotheses. Although correlational and causal – comparative design can suggest causal relationship between variables, experimentation is needed to determine whether the observer relationship is one of the cause and effect. (Meredith D. Gall, Joyce P. Gall, Walter R. Borg, 2003 : 366)

C.  - Design 1: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

The one-group pretest–posttest design usually involves three steps: (1) administering a pretest measuring the dependent variable; (2) applying the experimental treatment X to the subjects; and (3) administering a posttest, again measuring the dependent variable. Differences attributed to application of the experimental treatment are then evaluated by comparing the pretest and posttest scores.

Design 1: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

Pretest	Independent Variable	Posttest
Y1	X	Y2

- Design 2: Static Group Comparison

The static group comparison uses two or more preexisting or intact (static) groups, only one of which is exposed to the experimental treatment. Although this design uses two groups for comparison, it is fl awed because the subjects are not randomly assigned to the groups and no pretest is used. The researcher makes the assumption that the groups are equivalent in all relevant aspects before the study begins and that they differ only in their exposure to X. To attempt to assess the effects of the X treatment, the researcher compares the groups on the dependent  variable measure.

Design 2: Static Group Comparison

Group	Independent Variable	Posttest
E	X	Y2
C	-	Y2

D. The procedures in doing Pre-experimental design :

-       Ø

-       Ø

-       Ø

-       Give the group pre-test (optional)

-       Conduct the experiment by giving treatment.

-       Give the group post-test.

-       Measure the result and compare the average scores of pre-test and post-test.

2.   A. True Experimental Design

B. -The designs in this category are called true experiments because subjects are randomly assigned to groups. Because of the control they provide, they are the most highly recommended designs for experimentation in education. ((Donald Ary, Luck Cheser Jacobs, Chris Sorensen, 2010 : 305 )

-Most experiments in education employ some form of the one-variable design. One variable ex periment involve the manipulation of a single treatment variable followed by observing the effect of this manipulation on one or more dependent variable. The variable to be manipulated is referred to in this chapter as the experimental treatment. ((Meredith D. Gall, Joyce P. Gall, Walter R. Borg, 2003 : 366)

C. – Design 3: Randomized Subjects, Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Randomized subjects, posttest-only control group design is one of the simplest yet one of the most powerful of all experimental designs.

Design 3: Randomized Subjects, Posttest-Only Control Group Design

	Group	Independent variable	Posttest
(R)	E	X	Y2
(R)	C	-	Y2

-    Design 4: Randomized Matched Subjects, Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Randomized matched subjects, posttest-only control group design is similar to Design 3, except that it uses a matching technique to form equivalent groups. Subjects are matched on one or more variables that can be measured conveniently, such as IQ or reading score.

Design 4: Randomized Matched Subjects, Posttest-Only Control Group Design

	Group	Independent Variable	Design
(Mr)	E	X	Y2
	C	-	Y2

-    Design 5: Randomized Subjects, Pretest–Posttest Control Group Design

Design 5 is one of the most widely used true (randomized) experiments. In the randomized subjects, pretest–posttest control group design, one randomly assigns subjects to the experimental and control groups and administers a pretest on the dependent variable Y.

Design 5: Randomized Subjects, Pretest–Posttest Control Group Design

	Group	Pretest	Independent variable	Posttest
(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C	Y1	-	Y2

-    Design 6: Solomon Three-Group Design

The first of the Solomon designs uses three groups, with random assignment of subjects to groups. Note that the first two lines of this design are identical to Design 5.

Design 6: Solomon Three-Group Design

	Group	Pretest	Independent Variable	Posttest
(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C1	Y1	-	Y2
(R)	C1	-	X	Y2

-    Design 7: Solomon Four-Group Design

The Solomon four-group design provides still more rigorous control by extending Design 6 to include one more control group that receives neither pretest nor treatment.

Design 7: Solomon Four-Group Design

	Group	Pretest	Independent variable	Posttest
(R)	E	Y1	X	Y2
(R)	C1	Y1	-	Y2
(R)	C2	-	X	Y2
(R)	C3	-	-	Y2

D. The procedures in doing True experimental design :

- Take the subject

- Group the subjects

- Assign the groups randomly into Experimental group (E) and Control group (C).

- Give the groups pre-test (optional)

- Conduct the experiment by giving treatment.

- Give the groups post-test.

- Measure the result and compare the average scores of post-test.

3.      Quasi-Experimental Design

a.       The research design is Quasi-Experimental Design because it is not possible to randomly assign subjects to treatment groups and the quasi-experimental design does not provide full control, it is extremely important that researchers be aware of the threats to both internal and external validity and consider these factors in their interpretation (Ary, 2010: 316).

b.      According to Ary (2002: 301): “An experimental design is the general plan for carrying out a study with an active independent variable. The design is important because it determines the study’s internal validity, which is the ability to reach valid conclusions about the effect of the experimental treatment on the dependent variable.”

According to Cohen (2000: 211):“The essential feature of experimental research is that investigators deliberately control and manipulate the conditions, which determine the events in which they are interested.”

According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 147): “A quasi- experiment is a study that takes place in a real - life setting as opposed to a laboratory. For example, Padgett and Reid (2002) examined the effects of a student diversity program at a university in the western United States. In this quasi - experiment, they compared students who participated in the diversity program to students who did not participate. Their dependent variables were, among other things, GPA and graduation rate. They found no signifi cance difference between the two groups on GPA, but found that those who took the diversity program had higher graduation rates than those who did not participate in the program.”

c.       Design 9: Nonrandomized Control Group, Pretest–Posttest Design

Group	Pretest	Independent Variable	Posttest
E	Y1	X	Y2
C	Y1	—	Y2

d.      According to Ary (2010: 316-317), “the steps of doing that study:

1.      A researcher might be allowed to use two sections of freshman English at a high school for a study on vocabulary development.

2.      The researcher should select two sections that at least appear to be similar; for example, one should not choose a remedial class and an advanced class. Although subjects cannot be randomly assigned, one can flip a coin to determine which of the two intact groups will be the experimental group and which will be the control group.

3.      The researcher would give a vocabulary pretest to both classes, administer a program designed to improve vocabulary to the experimental group only, and then give a vocabulary posttest to both groups.

If the experimental group shows significantly greater achievement on the posttest, can the researcher conclude that the new program was effective?”

4.     THE FOURTH QUESTION  

a.       The research design is Classroom Action Research Design because in education is to create an inquiry stance toward teaching where questioning one’s own practice becomes part of the work and of the teaching culture (Ary, 2010: 513).

b.       According to Kemmis and McTaggart (1988: 5): “Action research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rasionality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the situation in which these practices are carried out.”

According to Ary (2010: 512): “Action research is about taking action based on research and researching the action taken. Action research is based on the premise that local conditions vary widely and that the solutions to many problems cannot be found in generalized truths that take no account of local conditions.”

c.       The action research models described in the literature differ in some ways, they appear to have common elements, as can be seen in the work of Stringer (2008), Johnson (2008) and Mertler (2009). We describe the process more fully:

1)      Reflect. Experience and perceptions are used to identify an area of focus based on a problem. Time is taken to review what is already known about the problem or focus area and to learn more about the problem. This may include a review of the literature. This phase is also referred to as identifying and limiting the topic.

2)      Plan. A plan is developed for taking action and/or for gathering information and data in order to observe or capture the experience or monitor the practice. It is in this phase that the research questions and methods are explicated.

3)      Act. The researcher implements the plan or changes a practice and collects data. Data may be collected from a variety of sources.

4)      Observe. The researcher synthesizes and analyzes the data. Key issues related to the problem are identified. This leads to refl ection once more.

5)      Reflect. The researcher reflects on and interprets the information and communicates or reports it to others. A new understanding of the nature of the problem is developed. Actions are taken and a new area of focus is identified.

6)      Plan. A new plan of action is developed to resolve or investigate the problem.

7)      Act. A new action is taken and data are collected (perhaps the same types of data or perhaps something different).

8)      Observe. The new data are analyzed, synthesized, and interpreted. The researcher then spirals back into the refl ection process (Ary, 2010: 518 - 519).

5.     THE FIFTH QUESTION

a.       The research design is Research and Development because to be most promising strategy we now have for improving education (Borg and Gall, ----: 772).

b.      According to Borg and Gall (----: 772): “Research and Development is a process used to develop and validate educational product. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R & D cycle, which consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be develop, developing the product based on these findings, field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field-testing stage.”

According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 35-36): “Descriptive research is just what it sounds like: it describes the attitudes and behaviors observed during the investigation. This approach to research is in many ways the converse of experimental research with respect to advantages and disadvantages. Whereas experimental research exhibits much control over the setting in which the participants’ behavior is observed, descriptive research take place in natural, real - life settings. A common descriptive research technique is naturalistic observation, which involves collecting data where people are ordinarily found.”

c.       The major steps in the R & D cycle used to develop minicourses are as follows:

1.      Research and information collecting.

2.      Planning

3.      Develop preliminary field testing

4.      Preliminary field testing

5.      Main product revision

6.      Main field testing

7.      Operational product revision

8.      Operational field testing

9.      Final product revision

10.  Dissemination and implementation.

7.      Ethnography

a.       The research design is Ethnography because research method was developed by anthropologists such as Margaret Mead as a way of studying and describing human cultures (Ary, 2010: 460).

b.      According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 204): “Ethnography is a process of creating a cultural map of human social behavior. An ethnography may include descriptions of cultural ceremonies, rituals, rites of passage, and daily events and behaviors. The ethnography tells a story about the experiences of others, as interpreted by the researcher. It is a written representation of a culture that not only describes the practices of the culture but also analyzes the functions and purposes of those events, describes the conditions under which particular behaviors or practices occur, and suggests some greater significance and deeper understanding of the culture.”  

According to Ary (2010: 459): “Ethnography is the in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or entire social group. It seeks to understand the relationship between culture and behavior, with culture referring to the shared beliefs, values, concepts, practices, and attitudes of a specific group of people.”

8.      THE EIGHTH QUESTION

a.       The research design is Case Study because case studies can establish cause and effect, indeed one of their strengths is that they observe effects in real contexts, recognizing that context is a powerful determinant of both causes and effects (Cohen, 2000:  181).

b.      According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 209): “A case study is to understand the characteristics that define a particular bounded system, and perhaps to describe an event or process occurring within that system.”

According to Ary (2010: 454): “A case study focuses on a single unit to produce an in-depth description that is rich and holistic. As indicated, case studies provide an in-depth description of a single unit. A specific unit may be selected because it is unique or typical or for a variety of other reasons. The unit is defined within specific boundaries, referred to as a “bounded system.” To be bounded, the phenomenon must be identifiable within a specific context.”

9.      THE NINETH QUESTION

a.       The research design is Textual Analysis because it involves the identification and interpretation of a set of verbal or nonverbal signs (Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009: 210).

b.      According to Ary (2010: 29): “Qualitative researchers seek to understand a phenomenon by focusing on the total picture rather than breaking it down into variables. The goal is a holistic picture and depth of understanding rather than a numeric analysis of data.”

Content analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting recorded material to learn about human behavior. The material may be public records, textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries, themes, reports, or other documents. Content analysis usually begins with a question that the researcher believes can best be answered by studying documents (Ary, 2010: 30).

According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 211): “There are an infinite number of possible interpretations of any given text and each interpretation is equally valid to the extent that it reflects the meanings attributed to the text by the interpreter. The researcher’s interpretation is, therefore, only one of many possible valid interpretations of a given text. In textual analysis, the researcher seldom seeks the interpretations of others; the researcher ’ s own interpretation is salient.”

10.          Prof. Dr. Sugiyono (2013 : 330)  said that Susan Stainback (1988) said "the aim is not to determine the truth about some social phenomenon, rather the purpose of triangulation is to increase one's understanding of whatever is being investigated" Then Bogdan said " what the qualitative researcher is interested in is not truth per se, but rather perspectives. Thus, rather than trying to determine the "truth" of people's perceptions, the purpose of corroboration is to help researchers increase their  understanding and the probability then their finding will be seen as credible or worthy of concideration by others". Mathinson (1988) said "the value of triangulation lies in providing evidence - whether convergent, inconsistent, or contracdictory". With the triangulation "can build on the strengths of each type of data collection while minimizing the weakness in any single approach" (Patton 1980)

11.  THE ELEVENTH QUESTION

According to Ary (2010: 424): “One of the distinguishing characteristics of qualitative research is the methods used to collect and analyze data. In qualitative studies, the human investigator is the primary instrument for the gathering and analyzing of data.  Because qualitative research studies human experiences and situations, researchers need an instrument flexible enough to capture the complexity of the human experience, an instrument capable of adapting and responding to the environment. It is believed that only a human instrument is capable of this task.”

Maykut and Morehouse (1994) write, “The human instrument is the only data collection instrument which is multifaceted enough and complex enough to capture the important elements of a human or human experience” (p. 27). Because of the importance of the interview in this research, it is critical that the investigator be a skilled interviewer. The questions used need to focus on meaning and be designed to elicit the “essence” of the experience from the perspective of the participants. The interviewer must be able to listen, prompt when necessary, and encourage subjects to expand and elaborate on their recollections of the experience (Ary, 2010: 473).

12.  THE TWELFTH QUESTION

According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 170): Qualitative research does not use statistics or replication as standards of proof. Qualitative research does not translate variables into numbers, so there can be no statistical analyses. Furthermore, qualitative research assumes that the analysis of a text is idiosyncratic to the researcher doing the analysis, and to the time, culture, and situation in which the analysis is conducted.

13.  THE THIRTEEENTH QUESTION

According to Ary (2010: 424-425): “The qualitative inquirer deals with data that are in the form of words or pictures rather than numbers and statistics. Data in the form of quotes from documents, field notes, and interviews or excerpts from videotapes, audiotapes, or electronic communications are used to present the findings of the study. The data collected are the participant experiences and perspectives; the qualitative researcher attempts to arrive at a rich description of the people, objects, events, places, conversations, and so on. Occasionally, some numeric data may be collected. Managing the large volume of descriptive data generated from interviews, observations, and the collection of documents is an important consideration in qualitative studies. Qualitative investigators also typically keep a personal or reflexive log or journal in which they record accounts of their thoughts, feelings, assumptions, motives, and rationale for decisions made. This is one way that the qualitative inquirer addresses the issue of the inquiry being value bound.”